
Class 
Book 






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COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. 



BOTANY BY CORRESPONDENCE 



BY 

C. H. SYLVESTER 

Formerly of the State Normal School at Stevens Point, Wis. 



BASED UPON 



BERGEN'S 

FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY and KEY AND FLORA 






STUDIES AND TEST QUESTIONS 



CHICAGO 
INTERSTATE SCHOOL OF CORRESPONDENCE 






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STKUCTUKE, 
FUNCTIONS AND CLASSIFICATION 



PLANT EELATIONS 



A COEEESPONDENCE COUESE EST 

BOTANY 

BASED UPON 

BERGEN'S FOUNDATIONS OF BOTANY, AND KEY AND FLORA 



INTRODUCTORY 

The correspondence student in any science must 
not expect to master his course by reading only. He 
must observe, and experiment with as great care as 
though he were in a well-equipped laboratory. This 
is most easily done in botany, where the apparatus 
required is simple and the experiments by no means 
difficult. Barring the work with the compound 
microscope, there is no reason why he should not 
thoroughly master the subject as presented in Bergen's 
text. Minute structures and studies with the com- 
pound microscope he must accept without demonstra- 
tion unless he is so fortunate as to have access to an 
instrument. In the latter case the book tells him how 
to proceed. 

The following apparatus is essential : 

Simple Microscope. — This the school furnishes 
with the text-book. 

Scalpel or Knife. — A sharp, thin-bladed knife for 
making sections. 

Dissecting Needles. — Take two coarse sewing 
needles and thrust the head of each into a handle 



6 BOTANY BY CORRESPONDENCE 

about four inches long and the size of a common pen- 
holder. Taper the ends down to the needles, and 
the instruments are complete. 

Paper. — A good, unruled drawing paper is desir- 
able, but most of your work can be done on legal cap 
or other paper such as you have. 

Pencil. — A good, medium pencil for drawing and 
note taking. 

This completes the list of essential things. These 
should be prepared in advance and kept always in 
readiness for use. 

A certain amount of work with plants is a necessary 
part of this course. Without it a clear understanding 
of the text is practically impossible. The student 
should make up his mind to collect and prepare the 
material required for study and experiment, and 
should have a definite time and place for his work. 
If he omits no work that is practicable and goes 
earnestly into every experiment that is possible to 
him, he will certainly gain that habit of close, scien- 
tific observation and logical inference that is the chief 
value in the study of botany. The facts of botany are 
valuable as information, but the habit of clear think- 
ing is of infinitely greater importance. Do not be 
discouraged at difficulties nor at failures in your 
earlier work. Skill and success will be certain to 
come in direct proportion to the effort you put 
forth. 

Use of the Lens. — Provide yourself with a smooth, 
level surface upon which to work, and arrange it so 
that the light will fall from above and below upon the 



INTRODUCTORY 7 

object you are examining. To do this lay a piece 
of clear glass across two supports about two inches 
high. For, want of a better arrangement, put two 
books upon the table with the opening between 
them toward the light, and rest the ends of the glass 
upon them. Place your microscope over the object. 
Both hands are now free to work. Regulate the focus 
of your microscope to suit the part you are to exam- 
ine. Take one of your dissecting needles in each 
hand and learn to handle your specimen with them. 
Your fingers are too large and clumsy : you will soon 
gain skill in the use of the needles, and your eye will 
become trained to see through your lens. 

Drawing". — You must draiv — draw much and fre- 
quently. Do not be discouraged by your first efforts, 
nor try to make fine pictures. Represent by simple 
outline drawings what you see. If you really see 
things, you will soon be able to show other people 
how they look. Copy some of the simpler drawings 
from the book till you get a little skill, but make your 
real drawings direct from the object. Do not try to 
find a picture like it — draw the object as you see it. 
Do not try to shade your drawings. Be content with 
well-proportioned outlines. Draw only the lines 
you see. 

This represents a folded 
leaf, but it is incorrectly 
drawn. No one can see all 
these lines ; some are hidden 
by the upper part of the leaf. 1 

The drawing should be like that on page 8. 





8 BOTANY BY CORRESPONDENCE 

Fig. 9, page 25, and Fig. 89, page 131, of Bergen 

are good examples of what 
you can do with outlines. Of 
course if you understand 
drawing, you will enjoy mak- 
2 ing more elaborate sketches. 

When you have found what you wish to draw, and 
the object is in proper position, leave it unmoved 
till you are through. Make your drawing from a 
certain point of view. If you wish to represent 
another view of the specimen, make another drawing. 
Write enough of explanation near your sketch to 
make clear everything you have not shown. 

Records. — Procure a notebook and keep, for your 
own satisfaction, a written record of whatever you do, 
under the date at which it is done. You will be told 
from time to time what you are to send in to the 
school for criticism. Such drawings as you send in 
will be returned to you and you can then file them 
away in your record. 

Finally, consider nothing too simple to be done, 
nothing too difficult to be attempted. Work faith- 
fully and with ardor — you will soon find your interest 
growing in the very things that now seem most diffi- 
cult. If you need help in your work, or are doubtful 
of any portion at any time, let us know. 



WHEN TO BEGIN THE COURSE, AND HOW TO 

PURSUE IT 

Read the following very carefully, several times if 
necessary, before you begin your studies, and plan 
your course intelligently. 

You can begin the course at any time you like. It 
is not necessary that the lessons be taken in the order 
given here, which is the order of the Foundations of 
Botany, though it is a good arrangement when you be- 
gin in the autumn. Even then it probably would be 
better to begin with Lesson V and study the first four 
lessons during the winter. The essential things are 
two : First, you must have plants to study ; second, 
you must study plants. This compels you to study 
Lessons IX, XX, XXI and XXII in the spring. The 
four lessons contain work enough for April, May 
and June, to say the least. Again, if the lessons are 
not taken in the order given here, the Review Lessons 
(VI, XII and XVIII) should be left to the very last 
and taken in the order given. Whatever arrangement 
you follow you will find it necessary to review and 
review as new material comes to you. 

All the lessons, studies, and test questions are sent 
you at once so that you can follow any order that you 
find most convenient. The lessons and their subjects 
are as follows : 

9 



10 BOTANY BY CORRESPONDENCE 

I. The Seed. Germination. Storage of Food. 
Movements, Development and Morphol- 
ogy of Seed. 
II. Roots. 

III. The Stem and Its Structure. 

IV. Structure and Work of Stem. 

V. Buds, Leaves and Leaf Arrangement and 
Movements. 
VI. Review. 

VII. Structure and Function of Leaves. Proto- 
plasm. 
VIII. Inflorescence. Study of Typical Flowers. 
Plan and Structure of Flowers. Nature and 
Structure of Floral Organs. Fertilization. 
IX. Fruits and the Classification of Plants. 
X. Cryptogams. Thallophytes. 
XI. Cryptogams. Thallophytes. 
XII. Review. 

XIII. Cryptogams. Bryophytes and Pteridophytes. 

XIV. Evolution. Plant Societies. 

XV. Botanical Geography. Relations of Plants 
to Each Other. How Plants Protect 
Themselves. 
XVI. Ecology of Flowers. 

XVII. Distribution and Propagation. Struggle for 
Existence. 
XVIII. Review. 
XIX. What the Flora Is. 

XX. What the Key Is. 
XXI. Use of Key and Flora. 
XXII. Systematic Botany. 



THE COURSE, AND HOW TO PURSUE IT 11 

There is no imperative reason for following any 
order in these lessons. If you change that of the 
book you may be caused a little trouble by the use of 
unfamiliar terms. If so, use the Glossary (page 239 
of the Flora) and the Index (page 397 of Foundations), 
and learn the significance of the new terms. The 
three review lessons studied at the end will systema- 
tize your knowledge. 

Here follow several different possible arrangements 
of the lessons with a few comments added. 

Course I 

Beginning in the autumn and continuing the year 
round. Take the lessons in this order : 

Autumn. V, VII, IX, XIII. 

Winter. I, II, III, IV, X, XI. 

Spring. VIII, XIX, XX, XXI, XXII. 

Summer. XIV, XV, XVI, XVII, VI, XII, XVIII. 

If you begin to study in the autumn, collect leaves 
and press them, fruits and lay them aside, mosses, 
ferns, etc., and press them for use later in the season. 
There is no good reason why several lessons may not be 
running at the same time. At any rate do not feel 
that one must be entirely completed before another is 
begun. Be independent. If you are working on 
roots and run out of material, lay that lesson aside 
and commence on another. When you are through 
with a lesson, send in to us what is required and 
work at another lesson. Do not get confused by car- 
rying this idea too far but still rise in a sense superior 
to your course of study. 



12 BOTANY BY CORRESPONDENCE 

Course II 

Beginning in the autumn and closing in June. 

Autumn. V, VII, IX, XIV, XV, XVI, XVII. 

Winter. I, II, III, IV, X, XI, XIII. 

Spring. VIII, XIX, XX, XXI, XXII, VI, XII, 
XVIII. 

You may find that the lessons overlap occasionally 
and it is not impossible that you will find some things 
you cannot do at all. What of it? The science of 
botany can never be finished and your teachers are 
vase enough to know that no person can do all that is 
suggested. If you work faithfully and intelligently 
you will accomplish enough and you will not be criti- 
cised for not doing the impossible. 

Course III 

Beginning in the winter and closing in the autumn. 
Winter. I, II, III, IV, V, VII, VIII, IX. 
Spring. XIX, XX, XXI, XXII, X, XI, XIII. 
Summer. XIV, XV, XVII, VI, XII, XVIII. 

No matter what course or what arrangement is fol- 
lowed, your plan of study should be to read a lesson 
through hastily by aid of the studies in order to see 
what is necessary for you to have or to do in order to 
master the lesson. It may not be advisable always to 
follow the order of studies as given in the lessons ; this 
order is best determined after you have looked through 
the lesson. 

It may be desirable to look ahead over several les- 
sons to see what is coming so that you may be watch- 



THE COURSE, AND HOW TO PURSUE IT 13 

ing for plants and preparing the things that need time 
to grow or the experiments that need time to mature. 
For instance, the seeds studied in Lessons I and II 
must have time to germinate, and many of the experi- 
ments given in the earlier lessons will extend over 
days. If Lesson V comes in the winter or early in the 
spring you may have to bring small branches into the 
house and putting them in a vase filled with water, 
wait for the buds to develop. 

Course IV 

Beginning in the spring and closing in the winter. 

Spring. VIII, IX, XIX, XX, XXI, XXII, X, XI, 
XIII. 

This may be a little difficult because so many terms 
and names will be new. The student must learn 
thoroughly the things suggested as reviews in the 
studies of XIX, XX, XXI, and XXII. By so doing 
the work is altogether possible for it has been done 
many times. Parts of these lessons may profitably 
run over into the summer. 

Summer. XIV, XV, XVI, XVII, V, VII. 

Autumn. I, II, III, IV, VI, XII, XVIII. 

Course V 

Beginning in the summer and continuing through 
the year. 

Summer. XIV, XV, XVI, XVII. 

Autumn. V, VII, X, XI, XIII. 

Winter. I, II, III, IV, VIII, IX. 

Spring. XIX, XX, XXI, XXII, VI, XII, XVIII. 



14 BOTANY BY CORRESPONDENCE 

This is a very satisfactory arrangement as it enables 
you to get nicely acquainted with the subject during 
the summer and to make collections for study in the 
late autumn and winter. 

If you have a smattering of botany or are review- 
ing it or are well prepared and have abundant time to 
work, you may be able to make a radically different 
arrangement for yourself and even to shorten the 
duration of the course, though the last plan is not 
recommended. No matter what your preparation has 
been you can find material for a year's study, and if 
the course does not prescribe them, you will have dis- 
covered lines of independent investigation that will 
keep you interested. 

Remember that if you get into difficulties of any 
sort the school will take pleasure in replying to your 
questions and will do all in its power to help you out. 

Send to the school at the completion of each lesson 
your answers to the test questions and such only of 
the studies as you are specifically directed to send in. 

The test questions should be answered without ref- 
erence to the text-book unless you are told to use it in 
some special cases. Do not copy the questions but 
number the answers to correspond with the questions. 

If you are unable to answer any question, give the 
reason under the proper number. "When your papers 
have been read they will be returned to you with full 
criticisms and corrections, accompanied by the correct 
answers in print. These will contain much new and 
helpful matter. 



LESSON I 

Chapters I — III 

STUDIES 

A. Read the Introduction thoughtfully. Pages 1-3. 

B. Draw a cross and a longitudinal section of a 
squash, pumpkin or melon seed, a bean and a pea, 
labeling the parts. Pages 5-9. 

C. Record at least two of the experiments on 
pages 9-13. 

D. Send in drawings of cross and longitudinal 
sections of soaked corn. Page 16. 

E. Give an account of your iodine tests for starch. 
Page 18. 

F. Study to the end of Chapter II, page 24. You 
will probably be unable to do the work in Section 23, 
page 18 ; Section 25, page 21 ; and Experiment X. 
Read those portions of the text carefully and study 
the drawings. You will be able to understand them. 

G. Send two sets of drawings showing three suc- 
cessive steps in the life history of each of two seed- 
lings grown under your care. See Sections 32-36, 
pages 25-28. 

H. Send tabular view of the experiments you have 
performed, following the form in Section 46, page 34. 

TEST QUESTIONS 

Write and send in answers to the following ques- 
tions. Do not copy the questions, but be careful to 

15 



:-: - :~^:~ it :: 7.7.15? ::~ zi'zz 

r:~e e;-.::; reriirei pie:e :: ~::i sni :: nnm':er ei:h 
;.n = — er ;- ; :he riesrirnE 2. re rv.r_ :: e: :e :". here. I: ~:u 
ere v."."': -t : : sn~ e: inj :_:.t ; 7::z. rr.-e Trie reiE : r. : : : 
-he :rr: ;; ::r uvnier the rr:rer number. Tne.Ee ; : 7 
:t ; : :v.es.::n = :.it = jl : _ jl1 £ be ;.ns~ erei — r.h ; ■;.: : e:er- 
ence to test-book or note b 

1. What is a cotyledon? What are dicotyledonous 
plants? Name one 

2. What is the function or use of root-hairs? 

3. Why is it advantageous to the squash, plantiet 
to have its cotyledons dragged out of the ground 
reT-i^r :h:-.n 1 'is Lei en:. Tie = ris: 

4. What is a cell and what is the all-important 
7 er: :: :: '. 

•:. ^here i= :iie :::i :: :he rhmLe: s::rei en 2. 
":: e in . en : : rn . en 3 re e '" 

6. Whence does the germinating plant derive the 
energy that enables it to push its way through the 
i : il ? 

7. VTLe: is nizrrniligj' "n a 1 is mem: :j :in: 
e : : . : z~ ' 



LESSON II 

Chapter IV 
STUDIES 

In the preparation of this lesson and usually in 
succeeding ones, it is best first to read through the 
coarse print of the text and then to return for more 
particular studies. 

A. Sections 48-52 should be carefully read but the 
student should not rest with this. He should make 
careful examinations of the roots of many plants. 
Take such full grown potted plants as you are 
willing to sacrifice after they have lost their beauty, 
lay your hand over the top, invert the pot and remove 
it by lifting it from the earth and roots. The pot will 
come off easily if you strike it sharply with a stick. 
Then carefully shake and wash all the dirt from the 
roots, and estimate the length of the roots and their 
surface and compare with that of the leaves and 
branches. Dig up a few of the persistent weeds and 
study the arrangement and extent of the roots. Find 
and examine as many as possible of the plants men- 
tioned in the text. Dodder can be found in mid- 
summer in almost any wild lowland of the middle 
west. You will recognize its most common form as a 
tangled mass of yellowish threads, bearing incon- 
spicuous white blossoms and clinging to the tops and 
sides of willows or coarse weeds. Its connection with 

17 



18 BOTANY BY CORRESPONDENCE 

the ground was severed early. Sometimes but few of 
the threads show and there remain rings and cvlin- 
drical masses of the blossoms apparently growing out 
of the stem of the foster-plant. 

The Handbook mentioned in the text is a laboratory 
guide too technical for our work. 

B. You can not do all the work in Sections 53-56, 
but by studying the text and figures thoughtfully you 
can get a clear idea of what the microscope would 
show. Much of the detail in Section 56 can be made 
out with your simple microscope. Diluted red ink 
will answer for eosin, and the experiment with iodine 
is very easily performed. See page 18. 

C. Experiment XV, page 50, is well worth trying, 
both for the practice it gives and because of the im- 
portant principles it illustrates. In chipping away 
the shell from the larger end be careful not to break 
the inner membrane which must be punctured at the 
top through the tube. 

D. Omit work in fine print on page 53. 

E. In Experiments XYII-XIX, pages 55-57, 
remember that it is not necessary that the apparatus 
should be exactly as described. If you cannot make 
it as described, invent some simpler form, being care- 
ful to preserve the essential conditions only. 

F. Omit Experiment XX, page 59. 

G. Be sure to try the experiment described in fine 
print on page 61. 

H. Make and send in the tabular view of the 
experiments you performed in this lesson. See page 
34. 



STUDIES 19 

I. Send in the drawings you made in Experiment 
XVIII, page 56. 

J. Describe your Experiment XV, page 50. How 
much increase was there in the height of the fluid in 
the tube? 

TEST QUESTIONS 

1. In what way may a plant be benefited by a 
poisonous root or by one with a nauseous odor? 

2. "What are haustoria? 

3. Classify roots as to form and give examples 
from your own observation. 

4. What purposes are served by the adventitious 
roots of the Indian corn ? 

5. (a) Mention three plants that store food in their 
roots, (b) How long is each in storing the food? In 
exhausting it ? (c) Classify plants according to the life 
of their roots. 

6. What are root-hairs? Show by diagram their 
relation to the cells of the epidermis of the root. 

7. Refer for a moment to Fig. 27, page 58. What 
is shown by the tips of the roots on the sprouting 
peas ? Explain fully. 

8. What is the use of the corky layer covering the 
roots? 

9. What differences would you expect to find in 
aerial and water roots? 



LESSON III 

Chapter V and Chapter VI to Section 103 
STUDIES 

A. Section 77, page 62, contains a very important 
series of studies. If you cannot procure horse- 
chestnut twigs you can find branches of the lilac 
which are nearly as useful for the purpose. Prepare 
your drawings carefully and send them in with the 
answers to the questions asked in the section. 

B. Make a careful study of the text and illustra- 
tions through the remainder of the chapter. It is not 
difficult and is self-explanatory. When there are ref- 
erences to figures in different parts of the book, be 
sure to look up the figures and study them. Try to 
find in nature around you types of the forms described. 
Keep your eyes open all the time when you are walk- 
ing and driving, and form the habit of recognizing 
types and referring forms to the nearest type you have 
studied. 

Fill out the review called for in Section 95, page 82, 
and send it in with as many illustrative sketches as 
you can conveniently make. 

C. Section 96, page 83, is a simple piece of work 
that should be done thoroughly. You may not be 
able to get the palmetto, but you can find rattan and 
bamboo or a piece of cane. Cat-brier is sometimes 
called green-brier. Section 100, page 86, should be 

20 



STUDIES 21 

worked out and then a comparison made between the 
two types of stems. 

Send in your sketches for these two sections. 

D. A comparatively large portion of the laboratory 
work in Chapter VI, page 83, you will be unable to 
do, but you can understand the subject pretty well if 
you will put time enough on the illustrations and the 
explanatory text. 

Section 97, page 84, and Section 101, page 86, are 
work for the compound microscope. Fig. 53, page 84, 
is a diagrammatic cross section, that is, it does not 
show the stem exactly as it appears but merely indi- 
cates the relative position of the parts to be considered. 
The same is true in a sense of Figs. 55 and 56, on page 
87, but as diagrams they are really clearer than your 
microscopic section would be and more intelligible 
than a section could possibly be to the beginner. 
Learn the names of the different parts of the stem so 
that the future text will be intelligible. 

E. To understand Fig. 58, page 89, imagine the 
lower edge of B to be brought down to the upper edge 
of A, and then that Fig. B is laid at right angles to 
the vertical A. You then see the top and side of a 
piece of the stem. Your lens will enable you to 
detect the different regions but not the cellular struc- 
ture. 

TEST QUESTIONS 

1. Upon what does the form of a tree originally 
depend? What causes tend to modify this form? 

2. Why cannot a grown tree rid itself of a crook or 
curve ? 



22 BOTANY BY CORRESPONDENCE 

3. What modifications of branches hare you 
noticed? Are the prickles on a rose modified 
branches? How did you determine? 

4. Discuss at length the ways in which plants 
climb, and use for illustration examples from your 
own observation. 

5. What modifications of stems can you trace to 
the influence of the soil or climate in which a plant 
thrives ? 

6. How can you distinguish roots from under- 
ground stems? 

7. What are fibro-vascular bundles? 

8. In what way is the stiffness of the stem in Fig. 
55, page 87, secured? 



LESSON IV 

Chapter VI, Section 103, Page 90, to Chapter VIII, Page 119 

STUDIES 

A. Omit Section 103, page 90. Study Figs. 59-67 
with the accompanying texts. Remember that these 
are highly magnified sections and represent things 
quite invisible to the naked eye. Each of these figures 
showing cells in mass is a representation of the struc- 
ture of tissues. "We can usually recognize the tissues 
with the naked eye, but the peculiar cell structure 
that makes them different can be seen only with the 
microscope. 

B. The work prescribed in Section 111 is very 
interesting and you can and should perform it, com- 
paring what you see with the magnified sections 
shown in Figs. 71-73. If you cannot get the branches 
mentioned, find others. Do not be content with the 
study of two. Get as many varieties as you can 
obtain and study each. A dozen types are none too 
many. 

C. It should be understood that unless told to the 
contrary, the student is always expected to master the 
coarse print of the text. The studies are intended to 
help him in the difficult places but not specifically to 
mention everything that must be done. Chapter VII 
is a very interesting one and the only portions that are 

at all troublesome are those involving the use of Feh- 

23 



24 BOTANY BY CORRESPONDENCE 

ling's solution and nitric acid. These (Experiment 
XXIV, page 117, and a part of Experiment XXV, 
page 117) you may omit if necessary. 

D. Send. in your written account of work in Sec- 
tions 123, page 114 ; and 125, page 116, together with 
a few characteristic sketches. 

E. Send in your written notes on Experiments 
XXI, page 108 ; XXII, page 111 ; and XXIII, page 
115. The experimental work and actual plant studies 
are far more valuable to you than the text, if you work 
intelligently and with persistent care. 

TEST QUESTIONS 

1. Describe three forms of cells and make diagrams 
of them. 

2. Compare monocolytedonous and dicotyledonous 
stems in structure and in manner of growth. 

3. What is grafting and what is essential to its 
success? 

4. What are knots in wood? How do they orig- 
inate? What care should be observed in pruning and 
why? 

5. What are the long brown scars or slits seen in 
the bark of the birch or cherry ? 

6. Tell the chief use of three of the tissues in the 
ordinary dicotyledonous stems. 

7. Trace the circulation of the fluids in the stem. 
What purposes are served by the process? 

8. What causes the flow of water in the stem? 

9. You have probably seen that a farmer will cut 



STUDIES 25 

up potatoes and plant the pieces instead of planting 
the whole tuber. Why does he do this? What is 
necessary in the piece that it may grow? 

10. Where have you already found food to be stored 
in plants? What parts of the bean, the sweet potato, 
the onion, the Indian corn, and the Irish potato, fur- 
nish food to man? 

11. What food products does the plant use? 

12. Give an account of the early growth of dicoty- 
ledonous stems. 

13. Distinguish between herbs, shrubs, and trees. 



LESSON V 

Chapters VIII, IX and X 
STUDIES 

A. All the work of these three chapters can and 
should be done by the student. The studies described 
in the fine print in Sections 131, page 119 ; 133, 
page 121; 135, page 123; and 136, page 125, are im- 
portant and simple, requiring only persistent care. 
It is not essential that the plants mentioned should 
be used ; others will answer the purpose, though these 
are usually the easiest to handle. Do not forget to 
study the illustrations. 

Send in your notes and drawings in Sections 131 
and 133. Your notes should be full and your draw- 
ings numerous to show the most striking points of 
your studies, and should be lettered and have suffic- 
ient written explanation to make them clear. 

B. Send in your studies of a leaf as prescribed in 
Section 141, page 130. 

C. Study the drawings upon pages 131 and 132 
until these typical forms are all firmly fixed in your 
mind, with the right name for each. Gather many 
leaves and classify each according to outline, tip and 
margin. 

D. Do not neglect the fine print study in Section 
142, page 134. 

E. Chapter X is entertaining and Experiments 

26 



STUDIES 27 

XXVI, page 145, and XXVII, page 148, should be 
tried with several plants as well as with the one men- 
tioned. These experiments and studies of the plants 
themselves are the valuable part of the lessons and 
will prove to be the entertaining portion. One can- 
not do these things without having his power of 
observation and his consequent pleasure made much 
keener and more active. 



TEST QUESTIONS 

1. Draw three leaves in your possession, and 
describe the shape, tip and margin of each. 

2. Distinguish between netted and parallel veined 
leaves, and show the relation of each to the number 
of cotyledons and the structure of the stem. 

3. Describe two types of venation and show what 
purposes are served by each method. 

4. What is a pollard? From what does the growth 
proceed in a pollard? 

5. Show how much of the plant in Fig. 82, page 
122, has grown since the preceding spring. 

6. What relation do the veins bear to the teeth at 
the margins of a leaf? What are the veins in the 
leaf? What is their function? 

7. What is a compound leaf? Make a sketch of 
an imaginary thrice-compound leaf. 

8. What is a leaf mosaic? Why should leaves 
arrange themselves in such positions? 

9. What is meant by the sleep of leaves? 

10. How are leaf movements accomplished? 



28 BOTANY BY CORRESPONDENCE 

11. "What is meant by the word heliotropism. If 
the more strongly lighted side of a plant grows more 
rapidly than the other, what heliotropism results? 

12. How would a plant grow if placed on a slowly 
revolving table before a lighted window? 

13. Draw an obovate leaf with serrate margin ; an 
arrow-shaped leaf with wavy margin ; a lanceolate 
leaf with an acute tip. 

14. "What do you call the first terminal bud that a 
plant produces? 

15. What is the function of the scales, the wool, 
and the waxy secretions, that are found around and 
upon buds? 

16. What is there peculiar in the habit of the 
compass plant, and what is accomplished by its 
peculiarities? 

17. Attach three pressed leaves to your paper and 
describe each. 



LESSON VI 

Review of the First Ten Chapters 

The student has now covered ten chapters, one hun- 
dred and fifty pages, and in so doing has studied 
many different things, has learned many new names, 
and it is surprising if some of his knowledge is 
not becoming vague. Accordingly he should review 
the matter in his text-book, examine anew his notes 
and drawings, and call to mind his various observa- 
tions. A review should be quite largely a new view, 
and accordingly this lesson is arranged on a plan 
somewhat different from that of the preceding ones. 
The identical studies may not be possible now, but 
they are suggestive and should be remembered till 
the time comes when it is possible to carry them out. 
If you cannot do these, find others that you can do. 
You will not be required to perform the impossible. 

STUDIES 

A. Study the root-hold of plants by "pulling up 
several. This can be measured by tying a string to 
the plant near its root, passing the string over a fixed 
pulley, and adding weights to the string. 

B. Study again the various food reservoirs you 
have seen. Find proofs that the food is actually con- 
sumed by the plant. 

C. Study patches of spreading perennial plants : 

29 



30 BOTANY BY CORRESPONDENCE 

grasses, strawberries, raspberries, Canada thistle, 
" butter and eggs," " bouncing Bet," asparagus, and 
others. Determine how each propagates itself other- 
wise than by seeds. 

D. Examine various soils under the lens and note 
the differences in the irregular particles. Each par- 
ticle of soil is surrounded by a thin film of water 
which remains after the soil appears to be dry. 
Notice how root-hairs cling to the soil particles. 

E. Keep in mind what you have learned, for use 
in your observation. Study leaves wherever you find 
them. Watch plant growth and note the individual 
habits. Try to give plants the characteristics that 
belong to them. This you will accomplish by study- 
ing plants where nature has placed them. The form 
of a detached leaf is valueless, but that leaf in its rela- 
tion to the life and environment of the plant is of the 
greatest importance. Field studies will become fas- 
cinating to you as you learn how to observe intel- 
ligently. 

F. Becur to your studies in germination. Observe 
the germination of seeds in nature. If there are 
maple or elm trees near you, see how nature plants 
the seeds, how they germinate on the surface, and what 
their struggles are to obtain a foothold and begin life. 
It is a good plan to keep your window boxes filled 
with germinating seeds. When you are through with 
one kind, put in another. When you find a new seed, 
plant it and watch it. You will begin to see that 
plants have as distinct personalities as human beings. 

G. Remove the rind from a section of corn stalk 



STUDIES 31 

and carefully trace the course of the fibro-vascular 
bundles through the pith by cutting it away. Are 
the bundles parallel, at a fixed distance from the rind, 
the same size throughout? 

TEST QUESTIONS 

1. What are epiphytes and where do their roots 
grow ? 

2. What determines how far roots may spread? 

3. Where is the feeding surface of roots? 

4. How is the presence of starch detected in plant 
food? 

5. Of what use to the plant is the stored food? 

6. How could grafting take place without the aid 
of man? 

7. How does a plant obtain water from the soil? 
How are plants able to live in dry soil? 

8. How do root-hairs differ from the rootlet? 

9. What is osmosis? Describe an experiment 
illustrating it? 

10. How can you tell leaves from leaflets ; com- 
pound leaves from leafy branches? 

11. What relations in form and size do leaves bear 
to the places in which they grow? 

12. Sketch a complete leaf and name its parts. 

13. What is a tendril? What different parts may 
be modified into tendrils? 

14. What does a seed contain? 

15. What is the hilum? What is the micropyle? 
What is an embryo ? 



32 BOTANY BY CORRESPONDENCE 

16. What are the parts of a cell? 

17. Name two types of stems in flowering plants, 
point out the differences and give examples of each. 

18. How do you know that the sap which nour- 
ishes the plant finds its way downward through the 
bark to the place where it is needed? 



LESSON VII 

Chapters XI and XII, Pages 150 to 186 
STUDIES 

A. Read paragraphs 159-161, pages 150-151, and 
study Fig. 116, remembering how greatly it is mag- 
nified. Find two stomata and one hair in Fig. 117 A ; 
six stomata and two hairs in 117 B. 

B. Eead Sections 164 and 165. 

C. Try Experiment XXVIII, page 155. 

D. Try Experiment XXIX, page 156. 

E. Use your lens in studying the hairs on leaves. 
You will be interested in the variety of shapes and 
complexity in form of some that you will find. In 
fact, you should keep the lens near you in all your 
studies, and form the habit of using it frequently. 

F. Omit Experiments XXX, page 160; XXXI, 
page 162 ; and XXXVII, page 175. The remaining 
experiments in this chapter are interesting and quite 
easily performed. If the particular plants mentioned 
are not to be had, others will answer the purpose. 

Send in report of any two. 

G. The table on page 174 deserves a thoughtful 
study. 

H. Fill out completely the blanks in the review 
summary in Section 190, page 177. Send in your 
finished outline. 

I. Chapter XII should be studied till it is thor- 
oughly understood. 

33 



34 BOTANY BY CORRESPONDENCE 

TEST QUESTIONS 

1. What are stomata and what is their function? 

2. How do stomata open and close? 

3. What is the use of the epidermis of a leaf? Of 
the hairs? 

4. What relation does the location of the stomata 
in a leaf bear to the manner of the plant's life? 

5. Discuss the work of the leaf. 

6. What is chlorophyll and what is its function? 

7. How much starch can a full-grown squash plant 
make in a day? 

8. In what living organism do plant and animal 
life seem to meet? Describe its life history. 

9. What does the autumnal change of color in 
leaves indicate? 

10. What are the characteristics of living proto- 
plasm? 

11. What are palisade cells and why are they so 
named? 

12. What differences have you noticed in the 
shapes of hairs on leaves? 

13. What movements may be noted in the proto- 
plasm of plant cells? 



LESSON VIII 

Chapters XIII, XIV, XV and XVI, Pages 186-216 
STUDIES 

A. Study Chapter XIII with such care that the 
names of the different forms of inflorescence will be 
familiar to you and that each form will come to mind 
as soon as you hear the name. These names as well 
as those of the forms of leaves will be in frequent use 
when you come to study systematic botany. Make 
an outline of the different forms and keep it for refer- 
ence. Illustrate each form by a diagram. 

B. Chapter XIV has three very clear studies of 
common flowers. It recommends the careful study 
of but one. If you can get them all, study them all 
according to directions, except that you need make 
drawings and notes on but one and may omit all 
compound microscope work. 

Send in your drawings and notes on one of the 
flowers. This work should be thoughtfully done and 
the student should examine and identify the parts of 
whatever flowers he can find. Skill and accuracy in 
this work will help in the study of systematic botany, 
which consists of the identification and classification 
of plants. In all these studies make constant use of 
your lens. 

C. The study of Chapter XIV has made XV easily 
understood. This is another chapter with new names 

35 



36 BOTANY BY CORRESPONDENCE 

that must be made familiar. Write an outline of the 
parts of flowers and the forms of the parts and illus- 
trate it with drawings. Carry it about with you, 
consulting it and comparing it with such flowers as 
you can obtain to dissect. Study the drawings in the 
book. In these ways you will get the names thor- 
oughly. 

D. From Chapter XVI you will have to omit 
Experiment XXXVIII, but you will be able to under- 
stand the chapter from the text and drawings. 

E. Fill out and send in the outline review on page 
207, and send in several diagrams of cross and lon- 
gitudinal sections of flowers. See page 206. 

TEST QUESTIONS 



1. Distinguish between determinate and indeter- 
minate inflorescence. Examples. 

2. Define peduncle, pedicel and scape. 

3. Distinguish between corymb and cyme. 

4. What is a catkin? Example. 

5. What are composite heads? Example. 

6. Make diagrams of the cyme, head, compound 
umbel and raceme. 

7. Classify the flower clusters. 

8. What are the essential organs of a flower? 
What the protective organs? 

9. When is a flower perfect, complete, regular and 
symmetrical? 

10. What are dioecious plants? Monoecious plants? 
What is a pistillate flower ? 



STUDIES 37 

11. Make and explain diagrams to show the differ- 
ent parts of pistils and stamens. 

12. What are diadelphous stamens? When are 
floral organs said to be adnate? When are petals 
perigynous? When are stamens hypogynous? 

13. What is a bell-shaped corolla? Make a dia- 
gram. What indication have you usually on a 
gamopetalous corolla to show the numerical plan of 
a flower? 

14. What is a flower for? What is the morphology 
of a flower, that is, to what do the different organs 
correspond? 

15. What is pollen? What is fertilization and 
how does pollen fertilize an ovary? 



LESSON IX 






A. C'zzzzrZ X~X~ ::z:iizs £:ize v^rr ir.:-rre=Tir.2 
£zzzLie£ :'.::: ::~ '_'--'-'- ei=7 e::^: ::r 2, T:~ Lizzie 
zi::::5::i:;— ::z I' :• z:: lie ::::ri: :: s^t -;.- -;■; 
zz : ~ a_l : : : z: :. -: " - : izzez ::' j.ii zri :.~ i: el: eelv ~ ; z 
vrXlizzi ztzizzvizzz: zs v^ne-rer zze~. I : z'::':zt 
:: re: 7 :v..r izz ::z::z::z :: :zz :zz ': : :z. Ge: i: a: ±1-5: 
Lszi. I ::;.-- 5 li : : 1 1 :: e :-.. szzit :: ilez:5. z:: a 
s-rzi" :' .1: tXzzts. I: z:: ':: : ::::t::~::: :i: :: 
:~ : frziz£. I:'v;z ::.:::: ^: ;ze :zt = Zt:::::t: lz 

:Zr TrZT. ZZZL'l z ' "' -~~- : - g tl=f. SeZI 1Z. ~ i ZZ Z I "A5 

zzz szerzze- :•: ::: :■: :zt sizzles. 

B. C:lle:: ;z i_: z~ • • izz.i:e"' is 7:-.: :iz. Xerer- 
ziize vr'nz: are irzzzs zz :ze '.: : :izi:il seiEr zzi vrls: 
zzerelj iz i : iziz i z sieeiz. I' i. 7:1 z z .i £i-:iXeI 
••fzzzis"" :ziz ire reillT seeis ■SeeiV' :zi: are 
reillT :rzz:.= : 

zzle:e izi sezi iz :ze :z:lize szzzziiit 
. -: z zz :z 1 1 z e I _ . . _• 1 iz e 1 z 
:: ::zi: 
:z:zz XIX is iz Lzir:r:iz: :ze :' 
I7 srziiri ie :: : ; :". -::. ::: _ r :: : 



C. 






D. 



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szzzLi 

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STUDIES 39 

classification. The important data in the chapter 
are : 

a. Idea of Genus. 

b. Idea of Species. 

c. How plants are named. 

d. Idea of Order or Family. 

e. Idea of Division. 

E. A certain portion of the Table of Classification 
on pages 232-233 should be thoroughly learned so that 
the meaning of each term used will be always recog- 
nizable. That portion of the table is : 

Division I. Cryptogams or Flowerless, spore bear- 
ing plants. 

1. Group I. Myxothallophytes. Minute uni- 

cellular, plasmodial plants ; the slime 
fungi. 

2. Group II. Thallophytes. Leafless, cellular 

cryptogams including bacteria, algae, fungi 
and lichens. 

3. Group III. Bryophytes. Mosslike plants, 

including mosses and liverworts. 

4. Group IV. Pteridophytes. Fernlike plants, 

including the ferns, scouring-rush and club 
mosses. 

Division II. Phanerogams or flowering plants, 
bearing seeds. 

Class I. Gymnosperms, such as the pines, cedars 
and other evergreen trees ; ovaries naked, 
that is, not included in a pistil. 



40 BOTANY BY CORRESPONDENCE 

Class II. Angiosperms. Seed plants with closed 
ovaries including most of what we call 
flowering plants. 

Subclass I. Monocotyledonous plants. 
Subclass II. Dicotyledonous plants. 

Though the outline may not seem perfectly clear to 
you, it will do no harm to memorize it now. It will 
become more real as you proceed with the lessons. 

TEST QUESTIONS 

1. What is the difference between a fruit and a 
seed? 

2. What is the difference between a follicle and an 
akene? Between a capsule and a follicle? 

3. What are the grains, such as corn and wheat. 

4. Explain the strawberry as a fruit ; the rasp- 
berry ; the blackberry. Are they berries as the bota- 
nist understands the term ? What are grapes, currants, 
potato balls? 

5. Make diagrams to show cross sections of drupe 
and pome. 

6. What are nuts? 

7. How are plants named? 

8. Where are monocotyledonous plants placed in 
the system of classification? Where are the true 
ferns? 

9. Of what is a botanical family composed? 

10. Upon what is placed the most reliance in clas- 
sifying plants : root, stem, leaves, flower, or fruit? 

11. What are hybrids? Have you ever known or 
seen examples of hybridization in a garden ? 



LESSON X 

Chapter XX, Pages 235-257 
STUDIES 

A. In the last lesson we began a study of classi- 
fication. Our text now proceeds to give us a series of 
studies on plants representing the different classes. 
It begins with the lowest in organization, simplest 
in form, though most difficult to study. The suc- 
ceeding types are constantly growing more complex 
in organization and at the same time becoming sim- 
pler for our study. Accordingly much of the work 
suggested in cryptogamic botany is only possible for 
advanced students who are well supplied with material 
and suitable apparatus, and have acquired some skill 
in the use of the compound microscope. But it is 
worth while to read most of the fine print and to study 
the drawings. In this lesson most of the space will 
be taken up in explanations and further descriptions 
of the types. 

B. Sections 258-259, page 235. 

Seeds contain embryo plantlets and consist of fer- 
tilized ovules. Spores do not. They are simply 
vital cells which are bred from the parent plant and 
have the power to reproduce themselves. The two 
ways in which spores are produced should be noted and 

the advance references to figures should be looked up. 

41 



42 BOTANY BY CORRESPONDENCE 

C. If you can find slime mould (Sees. 260-262) , 
spirogyra (Sees. 273-276) or vaucheria (Sees. 281- 
284) your lens will show you much that is inter- 
esting. You will be able to recognize them from the 
cuts. 

D. Bacteria (Sees. 263-266) are very minute, the 
smallest of living things. Two hundred of them side 
by side would not measure more than the thickness of 
writing paper. You cannot study them. They are 
present almost everywhere in innumerable quantities, 
and being immersed in the plant or animal in which 
they thrive, they sometimes multiply with inconceiv- 
able rapidity and exhaust the vitality of the tissues 
upon which they live. They produce decay and are 
the principal agent by which animal and vegetable 
forms are converted into soil or gas. Some are bene- 
ficial, others intensely destructive. Some are the 
cause of violent diseases, and others are instrumental 
in preparing the foods upon which we subsist. Some 
are in form like short rods which are either straight 
or spirally coiled, and others are minute globes or 
spheres. They absorb food throughout their whole 
body. Bacteria reproduce themselves by fission, each 
plant becoming two by a division extending through 
the nucleus. 

E. Diatoms (Sees. 270-272) are one-celled plants 
that may be fixed and may move about. The cell 
walls become solidified by deposits of silica and are 
often extremely beautiful in their markings. One 
view of them shows them to be shaped like an elon- 
gated rectangle, while a view at right angles to the 



STUDIES 43 

first seems like an elongated oval, a disk, a boat-shaped 
or an angular structure. To allow for growth one cell 
wall overlaps the other as does the cover of a box. A 
high-power microscope is needed to see them. The 
diatoms are the lowest class of the algae. 

F. The reproduction of spirogyra (Sec. 276) is an 
interesting topic even though you are unable to see it, 
as it illustrates both methods of propagation found in 
algae. The text gives a clear description. In spyro- 
gyra and the other filamentous algse the cells do not 
separate but remain joined together so that as cells 
divide in parallel lines a long chain of them will 
result, though each cell is really a separate plant. 
The division takes place like this : A represents a single 
cell; B C, the same one grown and divided. When 
these have grown sufficiently each will divide again 
making D E F and G. A second plane of division 
might pass through at right angles to the first in B 
and the group would appear as in M N P. 



GD ( B 1 C : ) ( D 1 E [ F | G ) 



s-c. 



( M I N ) 



G. Some of these algae develop a base and an apex 
differing from the rest of the filament. The basal cell 
may become elongated and serve to fix the plant ; this 
is called the rhizoid cell and the remainder of the fila- 
ment the thallus, terms that correspond somewhat 
with root and stem among the flowering plants. 
Growth varies a little and branching results as in 




E 



44 BOTA>TY BY CORRESPONDENCE 

vaueheria (Sees. 251-254\ This is easily understood. 
Referring to the last figure above, imagine X and P 
to divide and the resulting cells to separate at the 
horizontal line. The following form would result : 
Bv a similar process branching might 
extend in other directions. Notice how 
in vaucheria development has expended 
still farther and some cells take upon 
tnemse.ves distinct omees and produce 
the fruiting organs discussed in Section 254. 

H. Xitella and chara. one or both of which you 
may be able to find in ponds, show a still higher 
development which will be understood if you trace out 
their formation by means of simple division of cell 
and the taking on of marked characteristics bv differ- 
ent cells. 

I. Fucusand nemalion (Sees. 291-295 and 296-304) 
bring us to the end of the types of algae. The dixer- 
entiation in cells has increased till we recognize with 
the naked eve the function of manv. At the growing 
point the cells seem uniform but the further they are 
removed from that point the greater the difference and 
the greater the change in function. The cells of the 
compact cortex or bark protect the plant and convey 
food, the bladder cells give buoyancy to the plant 
when it is submerged. The disk by which it is 
attached and parts of the stem above are elastic and 
permit the plant to sway back and forth as the waves 
pass over it. The "sea weeds'' of the genus fueus 
grow to be very large sometimes and are conspicuous 
features of every coast. 



STUDIES 45 

TEST QUESTIONS 

1. To what division of plants do all those studied 
in this lesson belong? To what group do the slime 
fungi belong? To what group do the bacteria and 
the characeae belong? 

2. Are the algee an important group of plants? 
Give some idea of their variations in size and form. 

3. In what respect does the growth of vaucheria 
differ from that of spirogyra and the lower types? 

4. Give the life history of the vaucheria. 

5. What one of the algae may be considered the 
highest type of organization? What resemblances in 
appearance can you trace between this plant and the 
flowering plants? 

6. What are bacteria? How do they reproduce 
themselves? What are some of their characteristics? 

7. What are oscillatoria and where do they live? 



LESSON XI 

Chapter XX (concluded), Chapter XXI in part, 
Pages 257-281 

STUDIES 

A. This lesson includes the study of different types, 
some of which can be readily obtained. Read care- 
fully what is said in each case about the occurrence of 
the plant and then search for it. Where you are told 
how to cultivate a plant proceed to raise it as indi- 
cated. You will have no difficulty in securing speci- 
mens of mould if you follow directions, Section 306. 

B. Fig. 190 should be studied thoughtfully. Find 
the hyphse in Fig. 189. Now imagine ten of these 
much magnified to be in conjugation at 1, Fig. 190. 
In 2, see the partitions forming across the hyphse 
between b and a. These two a's continue to grow 
and to change appearance till in 3 they become gran- 
ular in appearance. In 4, at b the zygospore is com- 
plete and ready to germinate. The process of germina- 
tion is shown in 5. The globe at the top is a spore 
case which when mature will burst, discharging 
spores ; these will germinate and produce plants like 
Fig. 189, which in turn will grow zygospores : so the 
circuit of life or alternation of generations is com- 
pleted. 

C. The cluster-cup stage of wheat rust (Sec. 311) 
is about all you can make out with your lens, but that 
will prove interesting. 

46 



STUDIES 47 

D. You will not be expected to accomplish much 
in the study of microsphera (Sees. 314-315) but you 
can find agaricus (Sees. 316-319) and make out a great 
deal with your lens. Do not try experiments in 
eating mushrooms, for some of the poisonous ones 
imitate their harmless relatives very closely to the 
untrained eye. 

E. Study the yeast plant as in Section 320 and 
perform Experiment XXXIX. Send in an account 
of this experiment, page 268. Omitting Section 321 
you will find the rest of the fine print description of 
yeast to be interesting. 

F. Omit the work on Physcia but read Sections 
327-329. 

G. The coarse print in the remainder of the 
chapter is the summing up of what you have done. 
See that you comprehend it all. 

H. Marchantia (Sec. 335) grows almost every- 
where in damp shaded places. It forms broad green 
mats that, unless the winters are very severe, are prac- 
tically evergreen. Figs. 201 and 202 give a good idea 
of its shape, the thallus lying close to the ground or 
against the rocks. It is dark green with lighter 
shades, and its little umbrella-like receptacles about 
two inches high make it very easy to identify. It is 
one of the finest of the lower cryptogams for study 
and you can make out everything but its cellular 
structure by the aid of your lens. 

The growing point is the little depressed spot at the tip 
of the thallus. The rhizoids are the root-like objects 
on the lower side of the thallus. What is their func- 



48 BOTANY BY CORRESPONDENCE 

tion ? The dot-like circle in the middle of the diamond- 
shaped area is a stoma. Notice the midrib. The two 
receptacles are easily distinguished but you cannot 
hope to make out the minute fruiting parts. Your 
work is outlined in Sections 336, 338, and 339. The 
antheridia are shown in Fig. 203. You must imagine 
that each sperm cell as it falls from the receptacle 
into the dew or water becomes a very lively body 
moving about by two long cilia attached to its end. 
Eventually some one of these cells finds its way to the 
archegonia which hang among the delicate fringes 
suspended from the underside of the other receptacle 
as shown in Fig. 205. From these fertilized cells 
develop the spores that reproduce the plant. Look 
for the buds (gemmae) enclosed in cup-like receptacles 
on the thallus. These are not always present but you 
cannot mistake them when found. When these 
minute buds are mature and are rolled out upon the 
ground they begin to grow, one side developing 
rhizoids and the other the upper surface of a thallus. 
Search for marchantia and when you have found it 
work it all over with your hand lens. It is a most 
fascinating specimen. In the explanation of Figs. 
201 and 202 the words "male" and "female" should 
be transposed. The word is right in Fig. 205. Send 
in an account of your study on marchantia with 

sketches. 

TEST QUESTIONS 

1. What are zygospores? 

2. What is a saprophyte? How is yeast deter- 
mined to be a saprophyte? 



STUDIES 49 

3. What is symbiosis? Mention plants in which 
this habit is manifest. 

4. Trace the relationship in classification between 
mould and yeast, and the liverwort as typified in 
march an tia. 

5. Give a connected account of your study of mush- 
rooms. 

6. What is meant by the " rising" of bread? 
How do yeast plants assist in this? 

7. (a) The yeast plant reproduces itself by bud- 
ding ; the marchantia forms buds or gemmae ; are 
these alike? Are they like the buds of flowering 
plants? (b) How does the budding of yeast differ 
from fission in some of the algae? 

8. Why is rust injurious to wheat? 

9. Why should the farmer be suspicious of bar- 
berry bushes near his wheat field? 



LESSON XII 

Ren lew 

STUDIES 

A. Though we have not completed our studies 
among the cryptogams, it seems wise before we go 
any further to stop and review our work. This should 
be done by going over our notes and sketches and the 
papers we have sent in, not reading everything but 
seeing that we can recall what vre studied. The 
drawings in the book will often suggest the text 
matter. If vre find we cannot remember what they 
are about we should look wp the text. 

B. This is a good time to go over faithfully all the 
matter that is contained in the answers. Much of it 
is matter that is not in your text-book but was sent to 
supplement the text and to clear up the points that 
might be obscure to you. 

C. See if you are familiar with the scientific terms 
that have been introduced to you. You can pick 
them up rapidly by turning the leaves of your book 
for they are printed in italics the first time they 
appear. The scientific names of plants are also 
printed in italics in your text. 

D. Turn to your table of contents and look at the 
headings of the chapters. See how long you could 
talk on one of these headings if given it as a topic. 

50 



STUDIES 51 

E. Find out all you can on the following topics, 
using the index of your book (page 397) whenever it 
is helpful : 

Dependent plants. 

Single-celled plants. 

The movements of plants. 

Reproduction of plants. 

How the seedling grows. 

How water moves in plants. 

How plants breathe. 

How plants keep their form. 

Starch, where it is found and how it is made. 

The algae and how they live. 

F. Now take one of these topics or a similar one 
which you may prefer, work it up from your text, 
encyclopedia, or any other authority you can find, and 
prepare and send in a paper or essay of at least three 
hundred words on the topic you have chosen. 

TEST QUESTIONS 

1. What is meant by alternation of generations? 
Illustrate. 

2. "What are lichens, where do they live, and how 
do they propagate ? 

3. Make an outline showing the principal facts in 
the form and life of the marchantia. 

4. What influence has the attraction of the earth 
on the growth of a plant? 

5. How could you prove that starch is formed only 



52 BOTANY BY CORRESPONDENCE 

in the green parts of plants, and under the influence 
of light? Describe experiments. 

6. Are fibro-vascular bundles found in any of the 
plants from the lowest up to and including the 
marchantia? 

7. Contrast determinate and indeterminate inflor- 
escence. 

8. If you find two phanerogams and the leaves of 
one are parallel veined and those of the other are 
netted veined, what other differences may you expect 
to find in the plants? 

9. Imagine a flower that has five lanceolate 
sepals ; four ovate petals ; six stamens, two short and 
four long ; and a single pistil containing a two-celled 
ovary. Describe the flower in four general words and 
explain what each means. 

10. Give in outline form the different methods of 
reproduction which you have studied in plants. 



LESSON XIII 

Chapter XXI (Concluded) and Chapter XXXII 
Pages 281-297 

STUDIES 

A. "We now enter upon the study of plants which 
are more easily procured and are so large and highly 
developed that it will be a greater pleasure to study 
them. Mosses are available almost anywhere and can 
be collected with very little trouble. Follow closely 
the directions for the study of a moss, and do not be 
content till you have made out the parts and have 
answered to your own satisfaction all the questions. 
These particular studies are in Sections 343, 344, and 
346. Sections 345 and 347 are for reading. The 
basket-shaped enlargements alluded to in Section 344 
are the receptacles of the antheridia or male cells. In 
some species of moss this receptacle is terminal ; in 
others the stem grows on after the antheridia have 
escaped. When the lid of the capsule containing the 
archegonia is removed notice the minute delicate 
teeth that close the opening. They respond very 
readily to moisture, swelling up and closing the 
opening so that the spores rarely escape all at once. 

Notice the way in which the leaves contract when 
dry and cover up the green chlorophyll cells. 

53 



54 BOTANY BY CORRESPONDENCE 

B. When we take up the study- of a fern (Chapter 
XXII) we have moved up into another group, the one 
lying next to the flowering plants. Here again your 
studies of the plant will be found very satisfactory 
with only your lens to aid your eyes, unless the con- 
trary is stated in the text. Figure 210 shows you 
the particular fern whose study is prescribed in the 
text. If you cannot get this to work upon take 
another. It may not be like this in detail, but 
if you follow the method in Sections 349-351 you 
will discover the differences and your work will 
be even more valuable. Do not be content with 
one fern — try several, many, and compare them. Do 
not spend much time in trying to study the prothallia 
unless you have access to a greenhouse. 

Send in a general account of your studies in ferns, 
and sketches and notes on one species. 

C. You will be interested in looking for club 
mosses (Sees. 357-358) and in studying them. They 
are sometimes called ground pine and the long trailing 
plant is much used for Christmas wreaths and decora- 
tions. The cut in the book (Fig. 212, page 292) 
shows a portion of this with two upright fertile 
branches. 

D. You should have no difficulty in finding some 
species of scouring-rush or horsetail, or joint grass, 
and the study in Sections 359-365 should be carefully 
made. Sections 363 and 365 are for reading. The 
action of the elaters mentioned in Section 364 can be 
noticed with the naked eye and seen quite plainly 
with your lens. 



STUDIES 55 

Other species of equisetum differing considerably in 
appearance can be found later in the season, some in 
swampy places and others in shaded damp woods and 
still others on dry hillsides. 

Send in your sketches and notes on the horsetail. 

TEST QUESTIONS 

1. Give the life history of a moss. 

2. Why should ferns and mosses be put into differ- 
ent groups of plants? 

3. Make a descriptive outline showing the parts of 
a fern and their function in the different stages of 
its life. 

4. Arrange in order of the natural classification : 
ferns, bacteria* marchantia, algae, rusts, true mosses, 
yeasts, club mosses, and slime fungi. 

5. What do you know of the habitat of ferns? 

6. What does geology show of the life of ferns? 

7. In what two important respects do ferns resem- 
ble flowering plants in structure and in function of 
their leaves? 

8. What is the use of the silica in the stems of 
the horsetails? 



LESSON XIV 

Chapters XXIII and XXIV, Pages 298-323 
STUDIES 

A. Chapter XXIII leaves the close study of plants 
and leads us to reason over what we have seen and 
learned and to draw some interesting conclusions. 
The chapter should be read faithfully even though it 
does use scientific terms rather freely. They are 
already familiar to us, are self-explanatory, or their 
meaning may be found through the index. 

The law of biogenesis and its application to ani- 
mal and plant life is, perhaps, the most important 
fact of the chapter. 

The fact that there is an alternation of generations 
in flowering plants should be realized and understood 
even though it is not susceptible of proof to us with- 
out more aids than we have. 

With this chapter we leave classification based upon 
structural relationships for a time. 

B. Chapter XXIV begins a new department for 
us though we are familiar already with many of its 
facts. Do not be content to read about plant societies 
and plant colonies (Sees. 378-381). Go to some wild 
tract with which you are familiar and study the 
societies and the colonies there. It is not necessary 
that you should know the names of the plants. Learn 

56 



STUDIES 57 

to recognize them growing. Then go to another region 
different in character ; as, if the first one was a dry- 
rocky hillside, go next to a sandy plain, a damp 
shaded ravine or a marshy tract. Study the societies 
and colonies in the new places. Try to get general 
impressions. 

Send in a brief account of your expeditions. 

C. Try to classify ecologically the plants you meet. 
Again it is not necessary to know the names. Say, 
"This plant is a mesophyte, that is a tropophyte, and I 
know it because . . . " (here run over to yourself the 
reasons for your classification). Try to form the habit 
of thinking whenever and wherever you see a plant, 
what its nature is. It will not be long before you 
make the classification without much effort and 
almost unconsciously, as you will find out sometime 
afterward when your attention is called to the matter. 

Ecological study should take you out of doors 
among the plants, where aided by your own good eyes 
and the facts we have been learning you can find new 
pleasures every day. The plants will become your 
friends and you will never cease to wonder at their 
marvelous adaptations and almost reasoning habits. 
If you remain indoors and try to get all your knowl- 
edge from books you will find even though you can 
answer the questions asked, that you have little 
real living knowledge and have lost the most inspiring 
part of botany. 

D. If plants with which you are unfamiliar are 
mentioned in the text you can often find pictures of 
them in a dictionary or an encyclopedia, both of 



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LESSON XV 

Chapters XXV, XXVI, and XXVII, Pages 324-352 
STUDIES 

A. In your study of Chapter XXV go to your 
physical geography and examine the plant life of 
the different zones as given there. It will mean more 
now than it did when you first studied it. If you do 
not have a physical geography you can probably find 
some account in your common school books. 

B. Draw an outline map of North America locat- 
ing the principal mountain ranges, river systems, 
and lakes. Mark the boundaries of the United States. 
On this general map locate the different plant zones. 
In the United States color differently or mark out the 
great floral regions, naming each. Send in your 
map. 

C. While Chapters XXVI and XXVII are some- 
what in the nature of reviews and state the facts 
clearly and plainly, yet you should not be content 
with the reading. Study all the plants you can find 
for evidence of their mode of life in relation to other 
plants, and particularly how they protect themselves. 
You can doubtless find protective apparatus on plants 
not spoken of and possibly some protective devices 
not mentioned. 

59 



60 BOTANY BY CORRESPONDENCE 

TEST QUESTIONS 

1. Compare the vegetation of mountain heights 
with that of their bases. 

2. What causes tend to make the difference? 

3. What devices do plants partially submerged in 
water use to obtain a supply of nitrogen? How does 
red-clover supply itself with nitrogen? 

4. What is plankton? What is the Sargasso sea? 

5. Classify the means by which plants protect 
themselves from animals. 

6. What is the usual relation between the animal 
and the vegetable world? What exceptions can you 
mention? 

7. What are half -parasites and how may they be 
recognized? 

8. What is the tendency of £>arasitism? 

9. Describe two processes by which carnivorous 
plants seize their prey. Make sketches. 



LESSON XVI 

Chapter XXVIII, Pages 353-372 

STUDIES 

A. No more wonderful studies are offered in nature 
than those in the ecology of flowers. When you have 
read this Chapter XXVIII you will be almost incredu- 
lous of the statements made, but if you will study the 
flowers as you find them your incredulity will give 
place to belief, but you will wonder more and more. 
You cannot " get your lesson" this time in a day or 
a week. The one chapter opens outlines of investiga- 
tion that could occupy you for years, but every inves- 
tigation you make will pay for itself. Make it a point 
to examine every flower you can, after the manner 
indicated in the questions following, using your lens 
and dissecting needles. Do not expect to receive 
answers to all your questions. Do not be discouraged 
if you can find positive answers to none of them. 
You are learning to see and to reason. One flower 
will rarely tell the story of its class ; you must have 
many in different stages of growth. 
I. Pollination. 

1. Is it possible for this flower to fertilize 
itself? Why? Is it because of the shape 
or relative position of the stamens and 
pistils? Is it because of the character 
of the pollen? 
61 



62 BOTANY BY CORRESPONDENCE 

2. If self-pollination is impossible by what 

means could the flower be fertilized? 
Could water carry the pollen? Could 
large insects or birds carry it? Could 
small insects carry it? 

3. What attractions in the way of food does 

the flower offer to bird or insect ? 

4. How does it attract the attention of bird 

or insect? When it has attracted the 
attention of the animal how does the 
flower lead its visitor to the food store? 

5. When the insect or bird is induced to 

rifle the nectar or other food by what 
arrangements of stamens, pistils, or 
pollen is cross-fertilization secured? 
II. Protection of Pollen. 

1. What means does the flower take to pro- 

tect its pollen from wind or rain? 
What is the position of the flower and 
the position of its parts in rain and in 
sun? 

2. What precautions has it taken against 

the intrusion of unwelcome insects? 
These are but a few of the questions you will find 
yourself asking the flowers. Write out and send in a 
brief account of your studies and show by drawings, 
when possible, the discoveries you have made. Not 
less than twenty-five flowers should be examined be- 
fore this lesson is well prepared. It is not necessary 
to know the names in order to study the flowers : no 
introductions are necessary in floral society. 



STUDIES 63 

B. Probably the most marvelous adaptations for 
cross-fertilization are to be found in the orchids, a 
large family of monocotyledons. They are most 
common in tropical climates where the greater num- 
ber of them are epiphytes. They are very irregular 
in shape, brilliant in color and remarkable for their 
fragrance. There are many species in our region, the 
lady's-slipper or moccasin flower being, perhaps, the 
most familiar. If you can find lady's-slippers you 
should not fail to study them. Where is the pistil? 
Where the stamen? How can an insect enter a flower? 
Where could he crawl out if once in ? Which (stamen 
or pistil) would he pass first going in? Coming out? 
How is the pollen arranged? What is it like? How 
would it become fastened to the insect? Do not con- 
fuse the stigma with the flat shield which partially 
fills the mouth of the slipper. The stigma is below 
this. The stamens and pistil are united and there are 
two pollen masses. 

TEST QUESTIONS 

1. Classify the different ways in which pollen (or 
spores) may be distributed. 

2. In what ways do flowers advertise to birds and 
insects the presence of nectar? 

3. Which plants will produce most pollen, dioecious 
or perfect flowers? Why? 

4. What peculiarities would you expect the stigmas 
of wind-pollinated flowers to show? 

5. Why should the flowers of wind-pollinated 
plants be inconspicuous? 



64 BOTANY BY CORRESPONDENCE 

6. Why are there bright colored stripes on the 
corollas of some flowers? 

7. What is honey? 

8. How are ants and other insects too small to 
effect pollination kept away from some flowers? 

9. What are dimorphous flowers? 



LESSON XVII 

Chapters XXIX and XXX, Pages 373-395 
STUDIES 

A. Chapter XXIX is another that indicates a large 
amount of very interesting field work which should 
by no means be neglected. In all your walks con- 
sider how plants propagate. Does any plant do it in 
more than one way? If so, how many and what? 

B. Make collections of all the kinds of seeds and 
fruits you can find and study each with reference to 
its dispersal. Group those which are dispersed in 
similar ways and note which have succeeded in devel- 
oping the most successful modification of the method. 
Names are again unnecessary. Make and send in a 
table which shall show each method you have found, 
the number of species in which each method was used, 
and the notable variations in each method. Accom- 
pany your table with sketches of different types. 

C. Keep your eyes open for seeds and fruits scat- 
tered or hidden away from the place where they were 
grown and try to account for their presence. 

D. Can you find provisions for making the seed 
fall in the right position? Can you find provi- 
sions for making the seed enter the soil when it has 
fallen? 

65 



66 BOTANY BY CORRESPONDENCE 

E. Watch seeds of trees and other plants to see 
whether they germinate as soon as they fall, or lie 
dormant till another season. If the latter, can you 
detect any provisions for securing their safety during 
the winter or resting spell? 

F. Make special study of each of the unanswered 
questions and of the experiment in Chapter XXIX. 
Send in an account with sketches of any interesting or 
remarkable discoveries you have made in these ques- 
tions or in the studies mentioned above. 

G. Weeds are among the most interesting of plants 
to the botanist. Do not fail to study as many species 
as you can find, for each represents a most vigorous, 
powerful plant, one that has made the best possible 
use of its opportunities for development. Much as 
you may detest them in your garden you cannot but 
admire the way in which they prosper. The dandelion 
in your closely cropped lawn does not look much like 
the luxuriant one in the shaded fence corner, but it per- 
sists in putting forth its leaves, it cheerfully shortens 
its scape, it becomes so compact as to pass safely un- 
der your lawn mower and then ripens its seeds and 
proceeds smilingly to crowd out the blue grass you are 
trying to preserve. You will find many instances of 
this ready adaptability among the weeds. 

H. Be sure you understand thoroughly what is 
meant by development, by variation, by evolution, by 
the survival of the fittest, by natural selection. They 
are terms that describe the forces that rule the living 
world, plants and animals alike. 

I. Look for examples of plant competition and 



STUDIES 67 

then watch the progress of the struggle from day to 
day, from month to month. Do the fittest survive? 
Try to account for the forces at work. Question your- 
self and the plants. 

TEST QUESTIONS 

1. Describe how some tree that you know has 
struggled with its fellows and how it has succeeded. 

2. What tendencies can you see that lead plants 
of the same kind to vary? 

3. Describe some bur that is familiar to you. 

4. What purpose is served by the peculiarities of 
the " tumbleweed"? 

5. What advantage is it to the orange to have bit- 
ter seeds? 

6. Mention five causes that may tend to reduce 
the number of plants maturing from any crop of seeds. 

7. Why are so many species of plants found in 
the railroad lands fenced in along the tracks? 

8. What is meant by the phrase, natural selection? 

9. What Jdifferences would you expect to find be- 
tween the bushes at the edge of the thicket and those 
within it? 



LESSON XVIII 

Review 
STUDIES 

A. A general review of the work we have had 
will now be profitable. It is not wise to make this a 
mere re-reading of our text. It should include also a 
thorough study of our notes and of the answers to the 
test questions. 

B. On page XI of Bergen is a list of the full page 
plates. Look these plates up one after another and 
see how much more they mean to you now than they 
did when you first saw them. Here are some ques- 
tions that will suggest ways to think about pictures : 

Plate I, page 76. What evidence have you of a 
struggle for existence? How are the plants adapting 
themselves to their environment? To what class of 
plants do these belong? 

Plate II, page 128. To what kind of a plant colony 
do these belong? How did the willows overcome the 
loss of their tops? 

Plate III, page 140. Are these leaves netted or 
parallel veined? Is the plant an endogen or an 
exogen? What words will describe the shape of these 
leaves? By what modification of the petioles have 
the leaves been enabled to arrange themselves in this 

mosaic? 

68 



STUDIES 69 

Plate IV, page 158. What is it that hangs from 
the limbs of the cypress? What kind of a plant is it? 
To what class of plants does the cypress belong? 
Would you think that the "moss" belongs to the 
same colony? Why? 

Plate V, page 168. What evidence have you in 
the appearance of the Indian pipe that it is a sapro- 
phyte? Is it a sun-loving plant? Does it manufac- 
ture its own starch? Is it an endogenous plant? 
You can tell positively. Study the flower that has 
its face turned toward you. Why do the flowers hang 
downward? Describe the leaves of the trailing plant. 
What means of defense has it? 

Fig. 222, page 315. What are the round-ovate 
bodies, stems or leaves? Why are they so large, so 
thick and fleshy? 

Plate VII, page 316. Would you expect the leaves 
of the few plants here to have a thin epidermis? 
Why should they have narrow and small leaves? To 
what kind of a colony do these plants belong? 

Plate VIII, page 334. How happens it that trees 
grow along the streams and not on the hill sides? 
In what zone of vegetation is this scene located? In 
which of the plant regions of the United States? 

Plate IX, page 336. Describe the struggle for 
existence you can see here. How does the mistletoe 
cling to the branches of the cottonwood? How do 
you suppose it originally came upon the cottonwood? 

Plate X, page 362. Why has this flower a large 
brilliant corolla? Why do you think the flowers 
group themselves together? How have humming- 



70 BOTANY BY CORRESPONDENCE 

birds been affected by seeking their food in the 
depths of flowers? Can the bird be of any service to 
these flowers? Assuming that he goes from this 
plant to another of the same species do you think he 
would of necessity insure cross-fertilization? How 
have the wings of birds been affected by their habits 
of feeding? 

C. Some topics that are worth looking up are : 

(a) The relation plants bear to the formation of 
soil. 

(b) Different forms in the floral envelopes of flower- 
ing plants. 

(c) Various mechanisms by which flowering plants 
throw their ripened seeds. 

(d) Dependent plants. 

(e) A comparison between a fern and a flowering 
plant. 

(f) Comparisons between homologous parts of 
flowers. 

It is not expected that you will work out all these 
topics in detail, but some of them you can, and you 
should send in a report on one of them illustrating it 
with sketches if possible. 

TEST QUESTIONS 

1. What are cleistogamous flowers? 

2. What is the protonema in mosses, and what is 
its function? 

3. What is vernation? 

4. Where does the bean store its food for the 
germinating plantlet? 



STUDIES 71 

5. Mention a bryophyte, a pteridophyte, a 
thallophyte. 

6. To what class do yeast plants belong? What 
is their method of reproduction ? 

7. Define legume, winged fruit and stone fruit. 
Illustrate your definition by sketches. 

8. What are stomata and what is their function? 

9. What is meant by dehiscence? Distinguish 
between the words pollination and fertilization? 

10. What is a cabbage and how does it differ 
from a bud ? 



SYSTEMATIC BOTANY 



LESSON XIX 

SYSTEMATIC BOTANY 

Key and Flora 

STUDIES 

A. Heretofore we have been dealing with the 
various departments of botany that required little or 
no knowledge of classification or nomenclature. 
Henceforth we confine our attention to the common 
flowering plants and to a study of their classification 
including their names and relationships. This 
lesson is introductory to the general subject of the 
classification of plants. 

B. Return to your general classification on pages 
232 and 233 of the Foundations of Botany and observe 
that our studies are now to be confined to Division II 
(page 233) of the vegetable kingdom and that this 
Division has two classes, Class I-Gymnosperms and 
Class II-Angiosperms. The latter is divided into 
two subclasses, I, Monocotyledonous plants and II, 
Dicotyledonous plants. Get this classification thor- 
oughly in mind so that its names mean something. 
Whenever you are in doubt about the meaning of any 
technical terms used in the Foundations of Botany con- 
sult the index to Parts I and II to be found on pages 
397-412. This will refer you to the pages where the 
terms are explained. 

75 



76 BOTANY BY CORRESPONDENCE 

C. Now turn to pages 228-231 and study again 
paragraphs 249-254. This will make clear to you 
what is meant by a system of classification. We 
might make a scheme to show how a single plant 
stands. I have in mind the common Johnny-jump- 
up or lady's delight, the small flowered variety of the 
pansy that is often found growing persistently in old 
gardens. This plant belongs to 

Division II. Phanerogamous Plants, because it is 
a flowering or seed bearing plant. 
Class II. Angiosperms, because it has a closed 
ovary. 
Subclass II. Dicotyledons, because its 
embryo has two leaves. 
Order (Family) Violacese. Violet family. 
Genus. Viola. 

Species. V. Tricolor L. 
and 
Variety 

Arvensis. 
The botanical name of the plant is Viola Tricolor L. 
var. arvensis. The L. indicates that Linnseus named 
the plant. 

D. Now that we have a clear idea of what is meant 
by classification and the fieldjof our future studies, we 
will turn to the Key and Flora following the index to 
the Foundations of Botany. Flora is a word that has 
two meanings. It may mean collectively all the 
plants that grow in a certain region, as the flora of 
Illinois ; it may also mean a book giving a list and 
description of the plants growing in any given locality. 



STUDIES 77 

The title page shows to what locality this Flora is 
restricted. 

E. Read the Preface and note these facts : This 
Flora is restricted in locality and also to the spring- 
flowering plants and to commoner ones of those. So 
in your collecting trips you will find plants not 
described herein. Usually you will be able to deter* 
mine the family, frequently the genus, if you cannot 
the species. If you wish to make a complete study of 
the flora of this region you must get Gray's Manual of 
Botany (American Book Company). This is a large 
book and quite technical so that the Key is rather 
difficult to handle and the descriptions difficult to 
understand at first. The Manual contains no culti- 
vated plants. A simpler book that has both wild and 
cultivated plants is the Field, Forest and Garden Botany 
(Bailey's revision of Gray) published by the American 
Book Company. This is not restricted to any season, 
it has a clear and comprehensive key, and simpler 
descriptions. It does not, however, give all the spe- 
cies of wildflowers. Our Flora, however, is sufficiently 
comprehensive for our purpose and if you learn to use 
it skilfully you will be able to take up the more dif- 
ficult texts with comparative ease if you wish to carry 
your studies further. 

F. For the present we will pass on to page 13 
and examine the Flora as a whole. The plant 
descriptions run to page 237. This gives 225 pages for 
plant descriptions exclusively. The descriptions begin 
with Class I, Gymnosperms. Study the definition 
and examine Fig. 1, page 15 till you understand it. 



78 BOTANY BY CORRESPONDENCE 

In the definition you find a new word carpellary. Turn 
to your Glossary (page 239) and see what it means. 
Its definition is ''relating to a carpel." "What is a 
carpel? This glossary does not tell, because the word 
carpel was used in the Foundations of Botany and 
explained there. If you have forgotten it turn to the 
index of Foundations and find Carpel 198. On page 
198 is the definition " a one- or rnany-seeded pistil." 
So the gymnosperms have no pistils, but scales that 
somewhat resemble pistils. 

G. The plants are arranged in the Flora according 
to their relationships so that we know we shall find all 
the gymnosperms together. Turning oyer the pages 
we find that Class I ends on page 19, and Class II, 
Angiosperms, begins on page 20. Class I is compara- 
tively a small one, then. There is in it but one 
family, the Conifer se or Pine Family (page 13). Conif- 
ers means cone-bearing. This family has eight 
genera. 1. Pinus (page 14). 2. Picea (page 16), 
etc., and each genus has one or more species. 

A tabular outline of the Gymnosperms in our Flora 
would begin as is shown on the following page : 



STUDIES 79 

I. Phanerogams. 

Class I. Gymnosperms. 

Order I. Coniferse. Pine Family. 
Genus I. Pinus, Tourn. Pines. 

Species 1. P. Strobus, L. White Pine. 

2. P. Tseda, L. Lobolly Pine. 

3. P. rigida, Mill. Northern Pitch 

Pine. 

4. P. inops, Ait. Scrub Pine. 

5. P. sylvestris, L. Scotch Pine. 

6. P. resinosa, Ait. Norway Pine. 

7. P. palustris, Mill. Long-leaved 

Pine. 
Genus II. Picea, Link. Spruces. 

Species 1. P. nigra, Link. Black Spruce. 

2. P. rubra, Dietrich. Red Spruce. 

Etc., etc. 

H. Class II, the Angiosperms, begins on page 20. 

Learn the definition. Subclass I, Monocotyledonous 

Plants, is placed first. Learn the definition for this 

subclass. Be sure you know the exact meaning of 

every term used. Next are printed the various 

families of the monocotyledons, those naturally most 

nearly related being placed as near together as possible. 

They are: 2. Typhacese. Cat Tail Family, page 20. 

You remember Pinus was the first family. 3, Alis- 

macese. Water-Plantain Family, page 21, and so on, 

till we reach page 46 when we find ourselves at the 

end of the monocotyledons. 



80 BOTANY BY CORRESPONDENCE 

I. On page 47 begins Subclass II, Dicotyledonous 
Plants. Learn carefully the definition of dicotyledons, 
being certain of every term. The numerous families 
of dicotyledons take up the remainder of the Flora. 

TEST QUESTIONS 

These test questions are inserted here to see if you 
clearly understand what is meant by classification 
and what the Flora contains. So use your text-book 
if necessary in preparing your answers. 

1. Complete the outlines of the gymnospermous 
plants in the Flora. How many and what families 
are shown in the gymnosperms? How many genera 
and how many species of plants in the Coniferae? 

2. How many and what genera in the Betulaceae? 
(Use index of Flora.) To what division, class and 
subclass do the Betulacese belong? 

3. What is the common name of Nymphsea 
odor ata, Ait. ? (Use index.) To what family does it 
belong? 

4. What is the botanical name of the trumpet 
creeper? Has it an exogenous stem? Has it parallel 
veined leaves ? 

5. Give names of what seems to you one of the 
most important of the dicotyledonous families. Why 
did you select it? 

6. Find the name of a common plant which you 
know and give its classification as it appears by its 
position in the Flora. 

7. What is the meaning of the word pappus? 

8. What is meant by pileus? How did you find out? 



LESSON XX 

Key and Flora 
STUDIES 

A. The way we studied the Flora in the last lesson 
would not teach us much botany, but it has shown us 
what the Flora contains and one way of using it. 
Another and important use is, that it will give us the 
name of a plant we do not know. To teach you so to 
use it is the purpose of this lesson. 

B. To begin with we enter the Flora by means of a 
Key to the Families. This key is printed on pages 5 to 
12. Begin your study by reading How to Use the Key 
and Flora, pages 3-4. 

C. Now, let us examine the Key. In this key are 
grouped all the families shown in the book. They are 
classified, not always naturally now, but artificially 
by their most striking characteristics. First they are 
grouped in the two Classes I and II. Then Class II is 
grouped in its two Subclasses, Monocotyledons (page 
5) and Dicotyledons (page 6). The Dicotyledons are 
grouped in three divisions, I, Apetalous (page 6), II, 
Polypetalous (page 7), and III, Gamopetalous (page 
10). The Apetalous Division has two groups A and B 
(page 6). The Polypetalous Division has two groups, 

A (page 7) and B (page 8). Now observe that under 

81 



82 BOTANY BY CORRESPONDENCE 

each of these divisions the families are grouped, their 
names appearing to the right of the page, preceded by 
the number of the family as it appears in the Flora 
and followed by the page on which the family appears. 
Now examine one of these groups. Take the one 
labeled A, page 6, a group under the Apetalous 
Division of Dicotyledons. The first line defines the 
group — "Flowers monoecious or dioecious, one or 
both sorts in catkins." Notice the next line is in- 
dented, that is, is thrown a little to the right. Three 
lines below, another is indented just the same dis- 
tance. That shows the two divisions of A, 1, "Stamin- 
ate flowers in Catkins, the pistillate ones solitary or 
clustered" and 2, "Both kinds of flowers in Catkins." 
Under the first division are but two families, one with 
"leaves pinnately compound' ' (the Walnut) , the other 
with " leaves simple " (the Beech). But the second 
division has two sections shown by indentation, one 
with ' ' leaves alternate ' ' under which are four fam- 
ilies, the other with "leaves opposite" which has 
but one family. 

Study the Key carefully till you understand its plan. 
Remember that different groups are shown by the 
relative indentation of the lines. 

D. Now suppose we have a flower, the Johnny- 
jump-up, but we do not know its name. We exam- 
ine it carefully. It is not from a cone-bearing tree, 
so it is an angiosperm. The leaves are netted-veined 
and the parts of the flower are in fives, so we know it 
to be a dicotyledon. This carries us to Subclass II, 
page 6 of the Key. Now we must decide where it 



STUDIES 83 

belongs in this group. Both calyx and corolla are 
present and the petals are separate — so we know it is 
in the Polypetalous Division and that brings us to the 
bottom of page 7. Now is it in Group A or B of this 
division? That depends upon the number of stamens. 
Group A has more than ten ; Group B not more than 
ten stamens. 

This flower has five stamens, so it belongs to Group 
B, page 8. The first division here is " Trees, shrubs, 
etc.," and the second (middle of page 9) is " Herbs." 
Our plant is certainly a little herb, so we move on to 
the middle of page 9. How many ovaries has our 
flower? One single-celled ovary. So we will remain 
in the first section under "Herbs." The corolla is 
very irregular. So we run down the page ten lines till 
we come to "Corolla irregular." Here are two classes 
— " fruit a legume" and "fruit a capsule." Our plant 
has a capsule. There are two of these families hav- 
ing capsules and as our flower has five stamens we 
know it belongs to 66 Violet Family, page 149. 

E. We have partially identified our flower. "We 
know its family. Now we will turn to page 149 and 
read the description of Violacese. Our plant answers 
it, as we knew it would. Turning over the leaves we 
see there is but one genus given in the family and so 
we read what is said of Viola. Our flower answers 
the description perfectly and we know we have half 
its name. It is of the genus Viola. Pages 150 and 
151 show us that Viola is composed of Section 1, 
Section 2 and Section 3. Our flower has a stem so it 
cannot be in Section 1. It is not from exactly a peren- 



84 BOTANY BY CORRESPONDENCE 

nial root, we think, and it has very large stipules so 
we will try Section 3. It cannot be V. tricolor for 
our flower is so little. Then it must be V. tricolor 
xar. arrensis for we remember that we found it 
in an old deserted garden and it probably is not a 
native. 

N :w this is the process by which we identify strange 
flowers. Sometimes it is a much simpler, sometimes 
a longer process. Study the method above till you 
thoroughly understand it. If you can get pansies and 
violets of different species, run them through in the 
same way, going to the plant :: get the answers to the 
questions. You may have some trouble at first but 
skill will come as you continue to work. It is a 
good idea to work for a while with flowers that 
you know. >end in an account of one or two 
flowers you have traced and let us know how you are 
succeeding. 

F. You may run into a family like the Cruciferae, 
page 93. Here there are so many genera so nearly 
alike that you are given a little key to the genera. It 
is on the same plan as the key to the families, and 
you can use it in the same way. The Roman numerals 
here indicate the number of the genus. ''Capsella, 
IX" in the second line of ' ' A' " shows you that you must 
turn to the ninth genus which you will find at the 
top of page 93. There you will see the complete 
description. In case your plant goes to a family 
having several genera with no key. read each genus- 
ascription till you find the right one. This is the 
course to take in determining species also. 



STUDIES 85 

TEST QUESTIONS 

These test questions are given to see if you need 
more help on your study of the Key. Use the book 
in answering. 

O 

1 . Here is a description of a flower. Find its family 
by way of the Key: 

The flowers of this herb are separate and in umbels 
and are not enclosed by chaffy bracts. The perianth 
is free from the ovary and has three green sepals and 
three beautiful blue petals which soon disappear. 
There is but one style and but one stigma and the 
seeds have but one cotyledon. The leaves are parallel 
veined. 

2. From these additional facts verify the descrip- 
tion of the family when you have found it : 

"Leaves very narrow, a foot or more long, linear 
and keeled, often purple veined, tapering to point, 
entire, sheathing at base. Leaves and stem succulent, 
with mucilage-like juice. 

Flowers are from two to many ; in terminal, sessile 
umbels; perfect regular, 1 inch broad. The sepals 
remain persistent on the plant. Petals fall off, or 
liquefy. 

Stamens about 6 — sometimes with three shorter 
than the others, filaments beautifully densely bearded. 

Ovary 3-celled with 2 ovules in each cell. Pedicels 
recurved in fruit. Capsule ovoid or oblong 3-celled, 
3-valved, 3-6 seeded. 

Stem erect, stout, smooth or hairy, 1 or 2 feet high. 
Grows in dry sandy soil." 



86 BOTANY BY CORRESPONDENCE 

3. From the same description determine the species. 
"Write the full name and the classification. 

4. In the Key what two families are grouped under 
the alternate leaved section of those gamopetalous 
herbs whose ovaries are not adnate to the calyx, whose 
flowers are regular, whose ovary is one-celled and 
fruit a capsule ? 

5. What distinguishes the two families from each 
other in the Key f 

6. Define gamopetalous, apetalous, terrestrial, ad- 
nate, hypogynous. 



LESSON XXI 

Key and Flora 

STUDIES 

A. The two preceding lessons have shown what 
the Key and Flora are and how they may be used. 
Another lesson seems necessary. The chief difficulties 
you will experience are these : 

(a) An unfamiliarity with the terms used. Many 
are new, others have not been clearly mastered be- 
fore. Use the glossary and the text of Foundations. 

(b) Uncertainty and errors in your examinations of 
plants. This is particularly liable to occur with the 
smaller parts of the flowers, like the ovaries and 
stamens. Keep your lens always at hand and be cer- 
tain to use it. 

(c) Carelessness and haste in reading and in study- 
ing the plants. Make haste very slowly. Be sure 
you are right in each step before making the next. 

(d) Feeling that a plant must be exactly like a 
description. Plants were made before classifications 
and descriptions and some latitude must be allowed. 
Do not be content with the examination of one speci- 
men of a plant. There are cripples among plants and 
yours may be one of them. 

(e) Feeling that a description is near enough right 
when it is not. Only practice will enable you to tell 

87 



88 BOTANY BY CORRESPONDENCE 

just how far to go and just what are the essential 
things. 

B. Your uncertainties of vocabulary will be 
removed by a thorough study of the glossary and a 
review of the following sections of the Foundations of 
Botany : 

Section 2, page 6, last paragraph. 
Section 45, page 33. 
Sections 48-52, pages 36-41. 
Sections 79-94, pages 64-82. 
Sections 132-139, pages 121-128. 
Chapter IX, page 130. 
Chapter XIII, page 186. 
Chapter XIV, page 192. 
Chapter XVII, page 217. 
Chapter XVIII, page 221. 
Chapter XIX, page 228. 
Sections 382-394, pages 310-324. 

It would be an excellent plan to re-read the whole 
of those references, checking the botanical terms used 
and learning their meanings accurately. 

C. We are now ready for our real study of flower- 
ing plants. This must be from the plants. You 
must collect them as they grow, bring them home 
and study them there, keeping a record of what you 
find and where you found it. 

For collecting, use a close tin box. Put your plants 
into this as soon as you have found them and keep 
the cover on. This will aid in preventing evaporation 
and tend to keep your plants fresh. When you find a 



STUDIES 89 

plant gather it entire or note accurately the parts you 
cannot conveniently take. You will need to know 
about the roots, leaves (those at the bottom of the 
stem are often different from those higher up, flower 
leaves differ from stem leaves), buds, flowers and 
fruits if possible. If the flowers are not perfect, look 
to see if the plant is monoecious. If it is not, try to find 
the other plant. Care in collecting will save trouble 
when you come to study. Search different localities 
for different kinds of plants and search the same 
locality at different times, a week or so apart. Do not 
get discouraged. You are learning every moment 
that you are looking. 

D. When you have your plants ready for analysis 
and identification follow the following outline in 
ascertaining the facts. Do not begin the use of the 
Key till you have studied every point suggested here. 
Try not to destroy the parts as you dissect. 

Koot. 

Annual? Perennial? Form? 
Stem. 
Endogenous? Annual? Direction of growth? 
Branched? 
Leaves. 

Venation? Simple? Form. Outline, mar- 
gin, tip? Surface? Stipules? 
Flower. 
Perfect? Monoecious? Inflorescence? 

Calyx. Form? Number of sepals or lobes? 
Shape of sepals? Color? Free? 



90 BOTANY BY CORRESPONDENCE 

Corolla. Form? Number of petals or lobes ? 
Color? Shape of lobes, corolla or 
petals? Free? 

Stamens. Number? Hypogynous? Coher- 
ence? Color? Filament. Shape? 
Color? Attachment of Anther? An- 
ther. Number? Number of cells? 
Shape? Color? 

Pistils. Number? Adnation? Coherence? 
Compound? 

Style. Number? Shape? 
Ovary. Number? Simple? Number 

of cells? Shape? 
Stigma. Number? Shape? 
Fruit. 

Character? Dehiscence? Cells? 

E. When this is all done, take your Key and begin 
to trace the plant. You will find that new points 
need to be made out, as the outline is not sufficiently 
full for all cases. Turn constantly back to the flower 
for the information you lack. Do not be discouraged 
because the work is slow. It may take you several 
days to identify the first flower ; after a while you will 
be able to analyze several in an hour. If you cannot 
get the first you try, lay it aside and begin on 
another. You will get them all right after a while. 

F. When you have found the name of the plant, 
record it in your notebook which you can rule to show 
the various facts you want in connection with your 
work. The following facts are sufficient for your list : 



STUDIES 91 

The number of the specimen, the date, the family, 
botanical name, common name, locality where found, 
any interesting remarks. Send in the names of ten 
of the plants you have identified. 

G. After your plant is identified, look it all over 
and think of it in the place where you found it. Try 
to get a general impression of it, see it as a whole, see 
it with its fellows. Study it until you will recognize it 
the next time you see it ; learn its name and the 
name of its family. 

H. Every time you add a new plant to your list 
try to make out any resemblances it may bear to other 
plants you have had. Wherein does it differ from 
other plants? 

I. Take three plants, no two of the same genus, and 
press them between folds of drying paper, newspapers 
will answer with frequent changes. You will need 
flowers, leaves and part of the stem, together with root 
and fruit if convenient. Attach each of these securely 
to a sheet of paper upon which you have written the 
facts called for in studies D and F above. Send 
these three sheets in for correction and criticism. 
You may fold them if necessary, but if you do, fold 
them so that if your specimen is broken it will still 
remain with its own sheet. 

TEST QUESTIONS 

1. Draw a kidney shaped leaf with serrate edge. 

2. Draw a netted veined leaf, that has three palmate 
lobes, each of them with an acute tip and a dentate 
margin. 



92 BOTANY BY CORRESPONDENCE 

3. Define umbel, catkin and panicle, and make 
diagram or sketch of each. 

4. Distinguish between pedicel, petiole, stem, 
scape and peduncle. 

5. Classify the organs of a complete flower. 

6. Make a diagram of a cross section of a com- 
plete, perfect, symmetrical flower on the plan of five 
and label the parts. 

7. What is a dioecious plant? What is an irregu- 
lar flower? 

8. What are monadelphous stamens? Diadel- 
phous ? 

9. What are parietal placentae? 
10. Define epigynous. 



LESSON XXII 

Key and Flora 
STUDIES 

A. Enough assistance has been given you now so 
that you should be able to carry on the study of botany 
independently, and it is hoped that you have found 
enough lines of interest to keep you at work long after 
you have passed your final examination and earned 
your diploma. If the subject has been a success with 
you you will not measure your attainments by the cer- 
tificate, but by what you have gained intellectually 
and esthetically. If the study has caused you to see 
more of the world around you, if it has taught you to 
look about you with interest in the beautiful things, 
if it has made you appreciate the wonderful powers 
and the perfect adaptation of plants to their environ- 
ment, if it has led you to question the why and the 
wherefore of peculiar structures and to reason on the 
lives and uses of different forms of vegetation, if the 
world seems better, more beautiful, more wonderful, 
then you are a most successful student of botany, 
though you forget the difficult names and the trouble- 
some scientific terms that often puzzled you. 

B. You should now be able to analyze the simpler 
plants without great difficulty, and you should not 
consider this lesson finished till the list in your note- 

93 



94 BOTANY BY CORRESPONDENCE 

book, described in the lesson preceding, shows at least 
fifty plants of different genera. Send in your list, 
giving the botanical names only. 

C. Besides the list you should write out the abbre- 
viated description of at least ten plants of different 
genera, using a form like the following. Write the 
outlines and then after each item write the one or two 
words necessary to describe. Be as brief, as explicit 
as possible. One word of description will usually 
answer. Here is the form, with the outline filled 
out for the Johnny-jump-up : 



STUDIES 95 

Family ViolacesB 

Genus Viola 

Species, . . . tricolor L. var. arvensis. 
Common Name. — Johnny-jump-up. 

Date May 29, 1906 

Locality "Washington, D. C 

Root Perennial 

Stem Slender, hardly erect 

Leaves — 

Venation Netted 

Simple or Compound . . Simple 

Outline Broadly ovate . . 

Apex Blunt 

Base 

Margin Crenate 

Petiole Slender 

Stipules Large 

Flowers — 

Calyx Persistent 

Sepals — Five, green, narrow, eared, 

Corolla .... Rather small, short spur . . . 

Petals — Five , irregular, sh or t , 

spurred, purple and orange . . . 

Stamens — Five, short 

Filaments — slightly cohering — 

two are spurred 

Anthers — Five, somewhat triangular. 

Pistils One 

Ovary One-celled 

Ovules Numerous 

Style Somewhat c 1 ub- 

shaped 

Stigma One-sided 

Fruit — Pod — one-celled, three placentae. . . . 
Remarks. — Found by roadside near the city, just 
outside a garden gate. Rich soil. 



96 BOTANY BY CORRESPONDENCE 

Of course the facts will vary greatly and you will 
often wish to insert facts not provided for above. 
Send in three descriptions with plants attached. 

D. Learn to observe the general characteristics of 
flowers and fruits especially, so that in time you will 
recognize plants of the same family and even genera, 
at a glance. You will surprise yourself after a time 
with your proficiency in this way. 

E. When you have found a plant belonging to 
what seems to be an important family, learn the de- 
scription of the family, at least enough of the facts so 
that you can positively decide for yourself without the 
book whether a new plant belongs to the family or 
not. Here are some of the families that will demand 
your attention in this way because of the frequency 
with which you find them or because of their impor- 
tance. It is not expected that you will learn all this 
now. This study may last for months. 

1. Coniferse — Pine family — page 13. 

4. Gramineae — Grass family — page 23. 

5. Cyperacese — Sedge family — page 23. 

The species of the last two families are ex- 
ceedingly numerous and are very difficult 
to determine. You can learn to recognize 
the two and to tell a grass from a sedge. 
That is enough. 
10. Liliaceso — Lily family — page 29. 

Best type of monocotyledons for you to study. 
14. Salicacese — Willow family — page 47. 

You will find it impossible to distinguish many 
species but you can recognize the two 
important genera. 



STUDIES 97 

17. Betulacese — Birch family — page 51. 

18. Fagacese — Beech family — page 55. 

19. Ulmaceae — Elm family — page 59. 

The last four families are important as con- 
taining so many valuable trees. Learn to 
distinguish them and the principal genera. 
You will help to accomplish this by study- 
ing the book directly instead of waiting for 
the flowering of the trees. Trees are in- 
teresting and have much individuality. 
Learn to know them. 

30. Caryophyllaceae — Pink family — page 71. 
Not so important as it is interesting. 

32. Ranunculacese — Buttercup family — page 77. 

Will give you many representatives in early 
spring. 

39. Cruciferse — Mustard family — page 93. 

You will find many of them. The family is 

very easy to recognize but the species are 

difficult. 

45. Rosacese — Rose family — page 105. 

An important fruit-bearing family. Learn to 
recognize it by its flower and then to dis- 
tinguish the genera, Pyrus (page 108), 
Crataegus (pagellO) , Rubus (page 111), 
Fragraria (page 113), Rosa (page 115), and 
Prunus (page 116). 

46. Leguminosae — Pulse family — page 117. 
Another very important family. Learn to rec- 
ognize it from its fruit and from its papil- 
ionaceous (butterfly-shaped) flower. Pick 
out the important genera. 



98 BOTANY BY CORRESPONDENCE 

58. Aceracese — Maple family — page 140. 
72. Umbelliferse — Parsley family — page 158. 

A large family containing both food plants 
and those of very poisonous character. 
Learn to recognize it from its peculiar 
flower cluster, the umbel. Difficult to 
determine the genera and species. Note 
Carum (page 160), Pastinaca (page 161), 
and Daucus (page 162). 
75. Ericaceae — Heath family — page 166. 

A large family containing many useful and 
beautiful plants. Notice these genera Ep- 
igsea (page 169), Gaylussacia (page 169), 
Vaccinium (page 170). 
87. Labiatse — Mint family — page 193. 

A large family of spicy and aromatic plants 
which you will soon learn to recognize by 
the flower, but whose species are difficult 
to determine. 
100. Compositse — Composite family — page 224. 

An immense family of plants which you learn 
to recognize very soon by the composite 
heads composed of sessile flowers. The 
genera and species are often very hard to 
make out but you can determine some of 
them. There is the study of a lifetime in 
the Compositse. 
F. The eighteen families mentioned above you 
should know pretty well. After you have analyzed 
twenty or more flowers and understand and can inter- 
pret the descriptions, begin to look up and study the 



STUDIES 99 

descriptions of those families. You will find out that 
you already know many of these species, and you will 
be constantly finding new and unexpected relation- 
ships and can be on the lookout for new specimens of 
the different families. 

G. If you wish you can prepare a herbarium. 
Some students find it a very interesting occupation. 
A herbarium is a collection of dried and classified 
plants. Begin by collecting typical plants and pre- 
serving the entire plant if you can. If not, be sure 
to get all the characteristic parts. Press them neatly 
between sheets of newspaper and leave them until 
perfectly dry. Put a label with each as you press it. 
The label should show date, locality and name. 

When the plants are thoroughly dry, mount them 
on sheets of heavy white paper of uniform size. 
This is done by pasting narrow slips of paper across 
the plant and so fastening it to the sheet, or by gum- 
ming the plant directly to the sheet. 

Another way of preserving is to lay the plant loosely 
between two folded leaves. This gives better opportu- 
nity for subsequent examination, but the plant is more 
apt to be injured. To each plant or to the sheet on 
which it is mounted fasten a label. Here is a good 
form : 

Herbarium of John Jones. 

Family. Violacese. 

Name. Viola tricolor. L. var. arvensis. 

Common Name. Johnny-jump-up. 

Location. Roadside near Washington, D. C. 

Date. May 29, 1906. 

L.ofC. 



100 BOTANY BY COKRTSPOyi TJ _"I 

As tout specimens increase lz zzzzzi: keei izezz 
arranged by fazzi_:f = and genera, in the wrier in. 

— z i :h they appear lz : _ t J" 

1. Give the most marked characteTlE i: : •• ::' :~: 
families of plants which yon hi ~ -. \- zdieiL 

2. Describe : z -. : : : ; _:' -z . 2\ 2 : ~~ t : 

"What nnexpened relsnizehips ha^e yon das- 
covered between plants jzzz izrzzerLy hue— "' 

4. Classify noweTizr ilzais :z iz~ rlaz :: iks 
^2/ giTing 25 snzzzples :: ^7 :: :i: :azzz> n: .2-. 
• ecies in each : : z : ~ : zvr a : - . 

5. What i= izf ziszizzr.cz jt™ eez :::: : 5;: errz.= 
and gymnosj-T : rz ; 

6. Define spaazz zkene and key :: sazzars 



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errors are pointed out to the student. 



Write for further particulars to 
Interstate School of Correspondence, 

378-388 WABASH AVENUE, CHICAGO. 



NOV 



1 COPY DEL. TO CAT. DW. 



V06V 1% ^ 



